联合国大会周四呼吁结束乌克兰战争，并要求俄罗斯根据《联合国宪章》立即从乌克兰撤军。
在其第十一次紧急特别会议续会上，世界机构通过了一项呼吁结束战争的新决议，就在周五冲突进入第二年的几个小时前。
联合国大会通过了一项决议，要求俄罗斯撤离乌克兰。
赞成：141
反对：7
弃权：32
结果是 141 个成员国赞成，7 个反对——白俄罗斯、朝鲜民主主义人民共和国、厄立特里亚、马里、尼加拉瓜、俄罗斯和叙利亚。 在 32 票弃权票中，有中国、印度和巴基斯坦。
根据这份包含 11 段的决议，大会重申要求俄罗斯“立即、完全和无条件地从乌克兰领土上撤出所有军队，并呼吁停止敌对行动”。
解决战争的全球影响
大会通过该决议敦促会员国本着团结精神进行合作，以应对战争对粮食安全、能源、金融、环境以及核安全与安全的全球影响。 强调持久和平的安排应考虑这些因素，大会还呼吁所有国家支持秘书长努力应对这些影响。
续会于周三举行会议，开始辩论该决议，大会主席乔巴·克勒西 (Csaba Kőrösi) 表示，在整整一年中，拥有193 名成员的大会、秘书长和国际社会，在我们结束这场战争、遵守联合国宪章和国际法的呼吁中”始终如一，直言不讳”。
所有受害者的正义
大会还重申其对乌克兰在其国际公认边界内的主权、独立、统一和领土完整的承诺，该边界延伸至其领海。
该决议还强调有必要通过独立的国家或国际调查和起诉，确保追究在乌克兰犯下的国际法规定的最严重罪行的责任，以确保为所有受害者伸张正义并预防未来的罪行。
被拒绝的提案
该世界机构周四还拒绝了白俄罗斯提出的两项修正案。 第一项提案将修改决议的若干条款，第二项提案将要求大会呼吁会员国，除其他事项外，不要向冲突地区运送武器。
“历史的新篇章”
在周三的续会开始时，大会主席表示，在这个“历史的新篇章”中，世界正面临“关于我们作为一个国际社会是谁的严峻选择。 这些选择要么使我们走上团结和集体决心维护《联合国宪章》宗旨的道路，”他说，“要么走上侵略、战争、违反国际法常态化和全球行动崩溃的道路。”
在 2022 年 2 月 24 日入侵乌克兰几天后，在俄罗斯否决了一项谴责入侵乌克兰的决议后，联合国安理会成员投票允许大会召开第十一次紧急特别会议。
根据 1950 年通过的第 377A(V) 号决议，大会可以在安理会无法处理的情况下，处理国际和平与安全事务。
顾震帝整理，2023年2月24日。
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‘A whole different mindset’
Accurate clockwork is one matter. But how future astronauts living and working on the lunar surface will experience time is a different question entirely.
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On Earth, our sense of one day is governed by the fact that the planet completes one rotation every 24 hours, giving most locations a consistent cycle of daylight and darkened nights. On the moon, however, the equator receives roughly 14 days of sunlight followed by 14 days of darkness.
“It’s just a very, very different concept” on the moon, Betts said. “And (NASA is) talking about landing astronauts in the very interesting south polar region (of the moon), where you have permanently lit and permanently shadowed areas. So, that’s a whole other set of confusion.”
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“It’ll be challenging” for those astronauts, Betts added. “It’s so different than Earth, and it’s just a whole different mindset.”
That will be true no matter what time is displayed on the astronauts’ watches.
Still, precision timekeeping matters — not just for the sake of scientifically understanding the passage of time on the moon but also for setting up all the infrastructure necessary to carry out missions.
The beauty of creating a time scale from scratch, Gramling said, is that scientists can take everything they have learned about timekeeping on Earth and apply it to a new system on the moon.
And if scientists can get it right on the moon, she added, they can get it right later down the road if NASA fulfills its goal of sending astronauts deeper into the solar system.
“We are very much looking at executing this on the moon, learning what we can learn,” Gramling said, “so that we are prepared to do the same thing on Mars or other future bodies.”
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Lunar clockwork
What scientists know for certain is that they need to get precision timekeeping instruments to the moon.
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Exactly who pays for lunar clocks, which type of clocks will go, and where they’ll be positioned are all questions that remain up in the air, Gramling said.
“We have to work all of this out,” she said. “I don’t think we know yet. I think it will be an amalgamation of several different things.”
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Atomic clocks, Gramling noted, are great for long-term stability, and crystal oscillators have an advantage for short-term stability.
“You never trust one clock,” Gramling added. “And you never trust two clocks.”
Clocks of various types could be placed inside satellites that orbit the moon or perhaps at the precise locations on the lunar surface that astronauts will one day visit.
As for price, an atomic clock worthy of space travel could cost around a few million dollars, according Gramling, with crystal oscillators coming in substantially cheaper.
But, Patla said, you get what you pay for.
“The very cheap oscillators may be off by milliseconds or even 10s of milliseconds,” he added. “And that is important because for navigation purposes — we need to have the clocks synchronized to 10s of nanoseconds.”
A network of clocks on the moon could work in concert to inform the new lunar time scale, just as atomic clocks do for UTC on Earth.
(There will not, Gramling added, be different time zones on the moon. “There have been conversations about creating different zones, with the answer: ‘No,’” she said. “But that could change in the future.”)
Lunar clockwork
What scientists know for certain is that they need to get precision timekeeping instruments to the moon.
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Exactly who pays for lunar clocks, which type of clocks will go, and where they’ll be positioned are all questions that remain up in the air, Gramling said.
“We have to work all of this out,” she said. “I don’t think we know yet. I think it will be an amalgamation of several different things.”
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Atomic clocks, Gramling noted, are great for long-term stability, and crystal oscillators have an advantage for short-term stability.
“You never trust one clock,” Gramling added. “And you never trust two clocks.”
Clocks of various types could be placed inside satellites that orbit the moon or perhaps at the precise locations on the lunar surface that astronauts will one day visit.
As for price, an atomic clock worthy of space travel could cost around a few million dollars, according Gramling, with crystal oscillators coming in substantially cheaper.
But, Patla said, you get what you pay for.
“The very cheap oscillators may be off by milliseconds or even 10s of milliseconds,” he added. “And that is important because for navigation purposes — we need to have the clocks synchronized to 10s of nanoseconds.”
A network of clocks on the moon could work in concert to inform the new lunar time scale, just as atomic clocks do for UTC on Earth.
(There will not, Gramling added, be different time zones on the moon. “There have been conversations about creating different zones, with the answer: ‘No,’” she said. “But that could change in the future.”)
Space, time: The continual question
If time moves differently on the peaks of mountains than the shores of the ocean, you can imagine that things get even more bizarre the farther away from Earth you travel.
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To add more complication: Time also passes slower the faster a person or spacecraft is moving, according to Einstein’s theory of special relativity.
Astronauts on the International Space Station, for example, are lucky, said Dr. Bijunath Patla, a theoretical physicist with the US National Institute of Standards and Technology, in a phone interview. Though the space station orbits about 200 miles (322 kilometers) above Earth’s surface, it also travels at high speeds — looping the planet 16 times per day — so the effects of relativity somewhat cancel each other out, Patla said. For that reason, astronauts on the orbiting laboratory can easily use Earth time to stay on schedule.
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For other missions — it’s not so simple.
Fortunately, scientists already have decades of experience contending with the complexities.
Spacecraft, for example, are equipped with their own clocks called oscillators, Gramling said.
“They maintain their own time,” Gramling said. “And most of our operations for spacecraft — even spacecraft that are all the way out at Pluto, or the Kuiper Belt, like New Horizons — (rely on) ground stations that are back on Earth. So everything they’re doing has to correlate with UTC.”
But those spacecraft also rely on their own kept time, Gramling said. Vehicles exploring deep into the solar system, for example, have to know — based on their own time scale — when they are approaching a planet in case the spacecraft needs to use that planetary body for navigational purposes, she added.
For 50 years, scientists have also been able to observe atomic clocks that are tucked aboard GPS satellites, which orbit Earth about 12,550 miles (20,200 kilometers) away — or about one-nineteenth the distance between our planet and the moon.
Studying those clocks has given scientists a great starting point to begin extrapolating further as they set out to establish a new time scale for the moon, Patla said.
“We can easily compare (GPS) clocks to clocks on the ground,” Patla said, adding that scientists have found a way to gently slow GPS clocks down, making them tick more in-line with Earth-bound clocks. “Obviously, it’s not as easy as it sounds, but it’s easier than making a mess.”
‘A whole different mindset’
Accurate clockwork is one matter. But how future astronauts living and working on the lunar surface will experience time is a different question entirely.
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On Earth, our sense of one day is governed by the fact that the planet completes one rotation every 24 hours, giving most locations a consistent cycle of daylight and darkened nights. On the moon, however, the equator receives roughly 14 days of sunlight followed by 14 days of darkness.
“It’s just a very, very different concept” on the moon, Betts said. “And (NASA is) talking about landing astronauts in the very interesting south polar region (of the moon), where you have permanently lit and permanently shadowed areas. So, that’s a whole other set of confusion.”
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“It’ll be challenging” for those astronauts, Betts added. “It’s so different than Earth, and it’s just a whole different mindset.”
That will be true no matter what time is displayed on the astronauts’ watches.
Still, precision timekeeping matters — not just for the sake of scientifically understanding the passage of time on the moon but also for setting up all the infrastructure necessary to carry out missions.
The beauty of creating a time scale from scratch, Gramling said, is that scientists can take everything they have learned about timekeeping on Earth and apply it to a new system on the moon.
And if scientists can get it right on the moon, she added, they can get it right later down the road if NASA fulfills its goal of sending astronauts deeper into the solar system.
“We are very much looking at executing this on the moon, learning what we can learn,” Gramling said, “so that we are prepared to do the same thing on Mars or other future bodies.”